Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

Philosophy

    beginning of study of thought and logic in Western world --
	ancient Greece (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle).

    dualism -- Descartes

    materialism -- Leibniz

    empiricism --Bacon, Locke, Hume

    From Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature:

	The sense of self (ego) is:
	 "nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which
	 succeed one another with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a
	 perpetual flux and movement."

	The mind is:
	 "a kind of theater, where several perceptions successively make
	 their appearance: pass, re-pass, slide away, and mingle in an
	 infinite variety of postures and situations."

    modern view relating actions and though -- Heidegger


Mathematics
	computation as formal algorithm -- al-Khowarazmi
	formal logic -- Boole
	limits to computation -- Godel
	computability theory -- Turing
	intractability, NP-completeness -- Cook & Karp
	probability and statistics -- Bayes
	decision theory -- Von Neumann

Psychology
	scientific method in psychology -- Helmholtz & Wundt
	behaviorism -- Skinner
	cognitive psychology -- Craik
	cognitive modeling -- Anderson

Computer Engineering
	 growth in computational power enabled AI research

Linguistics
	computational linguistics -- Chomsky


History of AI

1956 -- workshop at Dartmouth including McCarthy,
Minsky, Simon, Newell

1958 -- McCarthy moves to MIT and drafts the first
definition of LISP programming language,
Minsky moves to MIT

1963 -- McCarthy moves to Stanford and starts AI lab with emphasis on representation and reasoning in formal logic

Era of early successes (1952 - 1969)

	Breaking limits of what people thought computers could do.
	General Problem Solver, Newell and Simon
	Applications in Microworlds, Minsky and students
	    e.g. blocks world (Waltz, Winston, Winograd)
	Perceptron convergence theorem, Rosenblatt (1962)
	Eliza, Weizenbaum

AI Winter (1966 - 1974)

	Attempts to solve real problems
	Approaches which worked in micro-worlds could not scale.
	Russian / English language translation
	    "the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak"
	    "the vodka is good but the meat is rotten"
	Minsky and Papert proof on limitations of perceptrons.

Knowledge-Based Systems (1969 - 1979)

	Dendral -- mass spectroscopy
	MYCIN -- diagnosis of blood infections
	Prospector -- location of minerals
	new emphasis on knowledge representation:
	    schemas (Schank and students)
	    frames (Minsky)

Industrial-Strength AI (1980 - 1988)

	XCON / R1 -- configuration of DEC minicomputers
	Fifth Generation project & MCC
	LISP machines -- Symbolics, Xerox, Texas Instruments

Neural Networks & Recent Events (1986 - present)

	Parallel Distributed Processing, Rumelhart and McClelland
	Hidden Markov models (HMMs) -- speech recognition
	    (Dragon Systems, IBM)
	Belief network and probabilistic reasoning, Pearl
	Cognitive modeling, Newell, Laird, Rosenbloom -- SOAR
	Situated cognition, Suchman, Lave, Winograd
	Intelligent interfaces
	Agency as a metaphor