I. Questions

A. Why are there Dutch East Indies?
B. Why do they speak Spanish in the Philippines and most of Latin America, but Portuguese in Brazil?
C. How did the Dutch Afrikaaners end up in South America and the British in India?
D. How was the Italian Renaissance financed?
E. Why was the North so much more wealthy than the South before the Civil War?

II. Ancient times

A. Uses--food, medicine, cosmetic, religious
B. Ancient cultures--Babylon, Egypt, Assyria
C. Phoenicians--sailors and traders
D. Greece and Rome
1. Spices important for luxury, symbolism, medicine
2. Trade--flourished in empire, conquered territories yielded new items
E. Arabs--became middle men at the end of the secret trade routes by A.D. 300; dealing in clove and nutmeg by A.D. 400; monopolized trade until 15-1600's

III. Middle Ages

A. Fall of Rome--A.D. 476, empire runs downhill--no safe travel, bad trade
B. Valuable commodity--preservative, medicine, flavor, wealth
C. Crusades--Venice offers financial backing and receives trade concessions in return, ends up controlling Mediterranean trade and becomes extremely wealthy
D. Polos go to China in 1269--increased demand
E. Result: A very rich, powerful Venice--this is where the money for the Renaissance was to come from--Da Vinci, Michelangelo, etc. Fueled rivalry with Genoa, Florence, Milan, etc.

IV. Renaissance

A. Other nations, jealous of Venice, try to get a share of the trade, try various routes
B. Events--Major players enter the game
-Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal--"Go around Africa."
Portuguese reach equator in 1471, the Congo in 1482, and Cape of Good Hope in 1487. *Moslems and Venetians are cut out of the trade.
-1492--C. Columbus--"Go West." No spices, but *establishes Spain in New World, *major advances in cartography
-1497--Vasco da Gama--reached India--*first European access to East by sea
-1497--John Cabot--*England reaches North America and *claims Newfoundland area.

C. Portugal becomes preeminent
-1490's--Cabral reaches S. America, *claims Brazil for Portugal
-1502--Portuguese reach *India
-1505--*ports in Africa established, e.g. Mombasa
-1506--*Portuguese reach Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
-1507--*Goa becomes center of Portuguese power
-1511-1516--* Port. explores, reaches Moluccas and Siam
-1540's--Portugal *establishes holds in China and Japan, introduces Christianity (Jesuits)--sets up situation described in book Shogun.
**Summary--Hard won mastery by Portugal, trade ruined for Moslems, Venice.

D. Conflict with Spain develops
-1494--*Treaty of Tordesillas--370 leagues W. of Cape Verde--Brazil received the E. half, *retained influence in Brazil; *Spain got the rest of Latin America
-1519--Magellan *reaches S. America
-1520--*Straits of Magellan reached, Pacific lies ahead
-1521--Spain *reaches Philippines, Spice Islands, Borneo
-1529--Spain abandons quest for spice monopoly, concentrates on New World

E. England enters the game
-1553--Cabot and Chandler try to go over Russia. No luck, but *trade with Russia develops
-1576--English *reach Labrador in Canada
-1578--*Drake's voyages--reaches South America, California, the Spice Islands, *makes alliances with Moslems, *reaches India and establishes English activity. *First English circumnavigation, lots of piracy on Spanish shipping.
-1600's--*British East India Company in India, much of British Empire in place

F. The Dutch want a share
-1602--Dutch ally with England
-1610-1640--*Dutch established in Spice Islands, Batavia, Persian Gulf
-1642--Dutch *Australia and New Zealand--accounts for lots of place names
-1652--Dutch *establish S. African colony
** Dutch harsh occupiers, burning what they couldn't control and making smuggling a capital offense.

V. Early Modern times--Break-up of European monopolies

Events
-1700's--France receives Reunion Island, Seychelles in treaty
-1780's-90's--All out war in Europe. Dutch *lose India first and by 1799 almost all their holdings
-1810-20--*British get the Spice Islands
-1802--*Ceylon becomes a British colony
-1818--*Clove plants smuggled to Zanzibar, nutmeg to the West Indies; development of the plantation system (slave labor) and break-up of monopolies.
-1860's--*U.S. clipper ships bring trade advantage, bring prosperity to NE. U.S., especially pepper trade. *Money allows development of U.S. culture, increases disparity between north and south.

VI. Modern remnants of the spice trade

A. Afrikaaners in S. Africa
B. Portuguese influence in Brazil
C. Spanish influence in Philippines, Latin America
D. Large populations of African-descent in West Indies
E. Remnants of British culture in India, English as second language
F. Various countries, esp. Africa--political struggles due in part to power vacuum after independence gained from European colonizers.

VII. Origins of Some Common Spices (many now cultivated elsewhere)

A. Plant origin--same sorts of aromatic compounds as perfumes--feeding deterrents, mostly. "Herb"--double meaning---plant vs. condiment; spice--fruit part

B. Spice Islands, Sri Lanka, & India
cinnamon--Cinnamomum verum (= C. zeylanicum)--Lauraceae--bark; C. cassia inferior substitute
mace (aril), nutmeg (endosperm)--Myristica fragrans--Myristicaceae--nutmeg toxic in quantity
cloves--Syzygium aromaticum--Myrtaceae--flower buds--flavoring, antiseptic, tobacco; flavor can be synthesized
cardamom--Elettaria cardamomum--Zingiberaceae--pods--originally medicinal--Indian cooking, Danish pastry
pepper--Piper nigrum--Piperaceae--drupes, black or white depending on processing
turmeric--Cucurma longa--Zingiberaceae--root--yellow coloring

B. China
ginger--Zingiber officinale--Zingiberaceae--rhizome--powdered or candied

C. Mediterranean, Mid- and Near East
bay leaf--Laurus nobilis--Lauraceae--leaves (do not eat them!)
poppy--Papaver somniferum--probably from Medit.--flavoring, also narcotic
saffron--Crocus sativus--Iridaceae--stigmas--most costly condiment: 150,000 flowers/kg
sesame--Sesamum orientale (S. indicum)--Pedaliaceae--seeds, seed oil

D. New World
allspice--Pimenta dioica--Myrtaceae--fruits--flavor of cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg
red peppers, hot peppers, paprika--Capsicum annuum, etc.--Solanaceae--berries (capsaicin); C. frutescens--tabasco
vanilla--Vanilla fragrans--Orchidaceae--berry--only crop from large family; synthetic is inferior and often adulterated

VIII. Important Spice and Flavoring Families

A. Apiaceae(Umbelliferae)--Carrot Family--fruits and/or leaves used
anise--Pimpinella anisum--Mediterranean--licorice flavor, often in liquers
caraway--Carum carvi--Mediterranean--breads, sauerkraut--antiflatulent
celery seeds--Apium graveolens--Mediterranean
coriander (fruits), cilantro (leaves)--Coriandrum sativum--Mediterranean--Indian, Mexican food (pico de gallo) Most folks either love cilantro or hate it greatly.
cumin--Cuminum cyminum--Near East--Indian and Mexican foods
dill--Anethum graveolens--Mediterranean--pickling, with fish
fennel--Foeniculum vulgare--Mediterranean--Licorice flavor
parsley--Petroselinum crispum--Eurasia--garnish, vitamin C


B. Lamiaceae (Labiatae)--Mint Family--mostly actually herbs
basil--Ocimum basilicum--Asia--pesto, Italian food
catnip--Nepeta cataria, etc.--SW. and Cen. Asia
chervil--Anthriscus cerefolium--Russia--cooking
lavender--Lavandula spp.--Mediterranean
marjoram--Origanum majorana--Mediterranean--like oregano, but milder
mint--Mentha x piperita, M. spicata--Mediterranean--jelly, candy, medicine (flavor and antiseptic, antispasmodic), gum
oregano--Origanum vulgare--Mediterranean--Italian and Mexican cooking
rosemary--Rosmarinus officinalis--Mediterranean--cooking, tea, perfumes
sage--Salvia officinalis--Mediterranean--used medicinally; modern testing says no value; used in meats (sausage)
thyme----Mediterranean--cooking, mouthwas, cough drops (thymol)

C. Brassicaceae--Mustard Family
horseradish--Armoracia rusticana--Eurasia--root
mustard--Brassica nigra, B. alba (hirta)--Mediterranean--ground seeds

D. Liliaceae--Lily Family
chives--Allium schoenoprasum--Europe and Mediterranean
garlic--Allium sativum--Mediterranean?--culinary and medicinal uses
onion--Allium cepa--Mediterranean?

E. Miscellaneous
curry-- a mixture of spices and a type of dish
tarragon--Artemisia dracunculus-- Asteraceae--used in vinegar in Russia, also in French cooking

Last updated Nov. 7, 1997 by Monique Reed